⏏️ Worse than Watergate

This will forever change America’s economic system [LOGO OST]( At times, our affiliate partners reach out to the Editors at Open Source Trades with special opportunities for our readers. The message below is one we think you should take a close, serious look at.   Plastic pollution is one of the defining legacies of our modern way of life, but it is now so widespread it is even finding its way into fruit and vegetables as they grow. M Microplastics have infiltrated every part of the planet. They have been found buried in Antarctic sea ice, within the guts of marine animals inhabiting the deepest ocean trenches, and in drinking water around the world. Plastic pollution has been found on beaches of remote, uninhabited islands and it shows up in sea water samples across the planet. One study estimated that there are around 24.4 trillion fragments of microplastics in the upper regions of the world's oceans. But they aren't just ubiquitous in water – they are spread widely in soils on land too and can even end up in the food we eat. Unwittingly, we may be consuming tiny fragments of plastic with almost every bite we take. In 2022, analysis by the Environmental Working Group, an environmental non-profit, found that sewage sludge has contaminated almost 20 million acres (80,937sq km) of US cropland with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), often called "forever chemicals", which are commonly found in plastic products and do not break down under normal environmental conditions. Sewage sludge is the byproduct left behind after municipal wastewater is cleaned. As it is expensive to dispose of and rich in nutrients, sludge is commonly used as organic fertiliser in the US and Europe. In the latter, this is in part due to EU directives promoting a circular waste economy. An estimated 8-10 million tonnes of sewage sludge is produced in Europe each year, and roughly 40% of this is spread on farmland. Due to this practice, European farmland could be the biggest global reservoir of microplastics, according to a study by researchers at Cardiff University. This means between 31,000 and 42,000 tonnes of microplastics, or 86 trillion to 710 trillion microplastic particles, contaminate European farmland each year. Spreading sewage sludge, or bio-solids, onto fields is common practice in many parts of the world (Credit: RJ Sangosti/The Denver Post/Getty Images) Spreading sewage sludge, or bio-solids, onto fields is common practice in many parts of the world (Credit: RJ Sangosti/The Denver Post/Getty Images) The researchers found that up to 650 million microplastic particles, measuring between 1mm and 5mm (0.04in-0.2in), entered one wastewater treatment plant in south Wales, in the UK, every day. All these particles ended up in the sewage sludge, making up roughly 1% of the total weight, rather than being released with the clean water. The number of microplastics that end up on farmland "is probably an underestimation," says Catherine Wilson, one of the study's co-authors and deputy director of the Hydro-environmental Research Centre at Cardiff University. "Microplastics are everywhere and [often] so tiny that we can't see them." SENSORY OVERLOAD From the microplastics sprayed on farmland to the noxious odours released by sewage plants and the noise harming marine life, pollutants are seeping into every aspect of our existence. Sensory Overload explores the impact of pollution on all our senses and the long-term harm it is inflicting on humans and the natural world. Read some of the other stories from the series here: The underwater sounds that can kill And microplastics can stay there for a long time too. One recent study by soil scientists at Philipps-University Marburg found microplastics up to 90cm (35in) below the surface on two agricultural fields where sewage sludge had last been applied 34 years ago. Ploughing also caused the plastic to spread into areas where the sludge had not been applied. The microplastics' concentration on farmland soils in Europe is similar to the amount found in ocean surface waters, says James Lofty, the lead author of the Cardiff study and a PhD research student at the Hydro-environmental Research Centre. The UK has some of the highest concentrations of microplastics in Europe, with between 500 and 1,000 microplastic particles are spread on farmland there each year, according to Wilson and Lofty's research. As well as creating a large reservoir of microplastics on land, the practice of using sewage sludge as fertiliser is also exacerbating the plastics crisis in our oceans, adds Lofty. Eventually the microplastics will end up in waterways, as rain washes the top layer of soil into rivers or washes them into groundwater. "The major source of [plastic] contamination in our rivers and oceans is from runoff," he says. One study by researchers in Ontario, Canada, found that 99% of microplastics were transported away from where the sludge was initially dumped into aquatic environments. Environmental contamination Before they are washed away, however, microplastics can leach toxic chemicals into the soil. Not only are they made from potentially harmful chemicals that can be released into the environment as they break down, microplastics can also absorb other toxic substances, essentially allowing them to hitch a ride onto agricultural land where they can leach into the soil, according to Lofty. Tiny fragments of plastics – from clothing, cosmetics or larger plastics that break down – can get into water supplies and soil easily (Credit: Aris Messinis/AFP/Getty Images) Tiny fragments of plastics – from clothing, cosmetics or larger plastics that break down – can get into water supplies and soil easily (Credit: Aris Messinis/AFP/Getty Images) A report by the UK's Environment Agency, which was subsequently revealed by the environmental campaign group Greenpeace, found that sewage waste destined for English farmland was contaminated with pollutants including dioxins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at "levels that may present a risk to human health". A 2020 experiment by Kansas University agronomist Mary Beth Kirkham found that plastic serves as a vector for plant uptake of toxic chemicals such as cadmium. "In the plants where cadmium was in the soil with plastic, the wheat leaves had much, much more cadmium than in the plants that grew without plastic in the soil," Kirkham said at the time. Research also shows that microplastics can stunt the growth of earthworms and cause them to lose weight. The reasons for this weight loss aren't fully understood, but one theory is that microplastics may obstructs earthworms' digestive tracts, limiting their ability to absorb nutrients and so limiting their growth. This has a negative impact on the wider environment, too, the researchers say, as earthworms play a vital role in maintaining soil health. Their burrowing activity aerates the soil, prevents erosion, improves water drainage and recycles nutrients. Plastic particles can also contaminate food crops directly. A 2020 study found microplastics and nanoplastics in fruit and vegetables sold by supermarkets and in produce sold by local sellers in Catania in Sicily, Italy. Apples were the most contaminated fruit, and carrots had the highest levels of microplastics among the sampled vegetables. According to research by Willie Peijnenburg, professor of environmental toxicology and biodiversity at Leiden University in the Netherlands, crops absorb nanoplastic particles – minuscule fragments measuring between 1-100nm in size, or about 1,000 to 100 times smaller than a human blood cell – from surrounding water and soil through tiny cracks in their roots. Analysis revealed that most of the plastics accumulated in the plant roots, with only a very small amount travelling up to the shoots. "Concentrations in the leaves are well below 1%," says Peijnenburg. For leafy vegetables such as lettuces and cabbage, the concentrations of plastic would likely then be relatively low, but for root vegetables such as carrots, radishes and turnips, the risk of consuming microplastics would be greater, he warns. Another study by Peijnenburg and his colleagues found that in both lettuce and wheat, the concentration of microplastics was 10 times lower than in the surrounding soil. "We found that only the smallest particles are taken up by the plants and the big ones are not," says Peijnenburg. This is reassuring, says Peijnenburg. However, many microplastics will slowly degrade and break down into nanoparticles, providing a "good source for plant uptake," he adds. It will take decades before plastics are fully removed from the environment – Willie Peijnenburg The uptake of the plastic particles did not seem to stunt the growth of the crops, according to Peijnenburg's research. But what effect this accumulation of plastic in our food has on our own health is less clear. Further research is needed to understand this, says Peijnenburg, especially as the problem will only get bigger. "It will take decades before plastics are fully removed from the environment," he says. "Even if the risk is currently not very high, it's not a good idea to have persistent chemicals [on farmland]. They will pile up and then they might form a risk." Health impacts While the impact of ingesting plastics on human health is not yet fully understood, there is already some research that suggests it could be harmful. Studies show that chemicals added during the production of plastics can disrupt the endocrine system and the hormones that regulate our growth and development. Chemicals found in plastic have been linked to a range of other health problems including cancer, heart disease and poor foetal development. High levels of ingested microplastics may also cause cell damage which could lead to inflammation and allergic reactions, according to analysis by researchers at the University of Hull, in the UK. The researchers reviewed 17 previous studies which looked at the toxicological impact of microplastics on human cells. The analysis compared the amount of microplastics that caused damage to cells in laboratory tests with the levels ingested by people through drinking water, seafood and salt. It found that the amounts being ingested approached those that could trigger cell death, but could also cause immune responses, including allergic reactions, damage to cell walls, and oxidative stress. "Our research shows that we are ingesting microplastics at the levels consistent with harmful effects on cells, which are in many cases the initiating event for health effects," says Evangelos Danopoulos, lead author of the study and a researcher at Hull York Medical School. "We know that microplastics can cross the barriers of cells and also break them, We know they can also cause oxidative stress on cells, which is the start of tissue damage." Plastic fragments appear to accumulate most in the roots of plants, which is particularly problematic for tuber and root vegetables (Credit: Yuji Sakai/Getty Images) Plastic fragments appear to accumulate most in the roots of plants, which is particularly problematic for tuber and root vegetables (Credit: Yuji Sakai/Getty Images) There are two theories as to how microplastics lead to cell breakdown, says Danopoulos. Their sharp edges could rupture the cell wall or the chemicals in the microplastics could damage the cell, he says. The study found that irregularly-shaped microplastics were the most likely to cause cell death. "What we now need to understand is how many microplastics remain in our body and what kind of size and shape is able to cross the cell barrier," says Danopoulos. If plastics were to accumulate to the levels at which they could become harmful over a period of time, this could pose an even greater risk to human health. But even without these answers, Danopoulos questions whether more care is needed to ensure microplastics do not enter the food chain. "If we know that sludge is contaminated with microplastics and that plants have the ability to extract them from the soil, should we be using it as fertiliser?" he says. Banning sewage sludge Spreading sludge on farmland has been banned in the Netherlands since 1995. The country initially incinerated the sludge, but started exporting it to the UK, where it was used as fertiliser on farmland, after problems at an Amsterdam incineration plant. Switzerland prohibited the use of sewage sludge as fertiliser in 2003 because it "comprises a whole range of harmful substances and pathogenic organisms produced by industry and private households". The US state Maine also banned the practice in April 2022 after environmental authorities found high levels of PFAS on farmland soil, crops and water. High PFAS levels were also detected in farmers' blood. The widespread contamination forced several farms to close. The new Maine law bans the application, sale and distribution of compost containing sewage sludge, but does not forbid it from being exported. But a total ban on using sewage sludge as fertiliser is not necessarily the best solution, says Cardiff University's Wilson. Instead, it could incentivise farmers to use more synthetic nitrogen fertilisers, made from natural gas, she says. "[With sewage sludge], we're using a waste product in an efficient way, rather than producing endless fossil fuel fertilisers," says Wilson. The organic waste in sludge also helps return carbon to the soil and enriches it with nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, which prevents soil degradation, she says. Microplastics are now on the cusp of changing from a contaminant to a pollutant – Evangelos Danopoulos "We need to quantify the microplastics in sewage sludge so that we can [determine] where the hot spots are and start managing it," says Wilson. In places with high levels of microplastics, sewage sludge could be incinerated to generate energy instead of used as fertiliser, she suggests. One way to prevent the contamination of farmland is to recover fats, oil and grease (which contain high levels of microplastics) at wastewater treatment plants and use this "surface scum" as biofuel, instead of mixing it with sludge, Wilson and her colleagues say. Some European countries, such as Italy and Greece, dispose of sewage sludge in landfill sites, the researchers note, but they warn that there is a risk of microplastics leaching into the environment from these sites and contaminating surrounding land and water bodies. Both Wilson and Danopoulos say much more research is needed to quantify the amount of microplastics on farmland and the possible environmental and health impacts. "Microplastics are now on the cusp of changing from a contaminant to a pollutant," says Danopoulos. "A contaminant is something that is found where it shouldn't be. Microplastics shouldn't be in our water and soil. If we prove that [they have] adverse effects, that would make them a pollutant and [we] would have to bring in legislation and regulations." This piece was updated on 05/01/23 to clarify that the Maine law bans the application, sale and distribution of compost containing sludge, but not the export. [A new documentary]( just exposed the most terrifying political plot in decades… an event that will shake the very foundations of America’s economic and financial system. The Heat the Streets project in Stithians provides a whole new template for how ground source heat pumps can work. Ground source heat pumps are more efficient than their air source counterparts. This is due to the ground having a consistent temperature. Most ground source heat pumps have a vertical piping which requires drilling of a deep, costly borehole 60-200m (200-650ft) into the ground. Alternatively, they can use a horizontal loop that is far shallower in the ground but requires a large surface area that most people don't have, especially in cities. What's more, installing heat pumps tends to be the responsibility of individual homeowners. Despite incentives such as the UK's Boiler Upgrade Scheme and US federal tax credits under Biden's Inflation Reduction Act, there remain significant barriers to widespread rollout. There is often a lack of understanding and awareness of the technology, which, combined with large upfront costs and few trained installers, can prevent homeowners from making the change. Architecture can also be a barrier: houses also simply need enough outdoor space to install the heat pumps, something obviously lacking in flats and dense urban settings. When a [gas] boiler breaks, there'll now be an alternative to simply replacing it – Max Bridger Rather than each home drilling a single borehole for a single heat pump, however, Heat the Streets uses over 200 boreholes drilled 100m (330ft) beneath the street linked to a huge communal network of horizontal, underground pipes just below street level, known as a heatmain. Glycerol – an odourless, non-toxic, viscous liquid – is passed vertically through the boreholes to absorb heat and then circulate it in these horizontal pipes, which in turn supply heat pumps in individual properties along the whole street and, eventually, the whole neighbourhood. The heat pumps – no larger than a typical gas boiler – are fitted either inside or outside individual homes, depending on the property's size, suitability and owner preference. Just a few metres below the surface of Cornwall, the ground has a constant temperature of around 11C (52F) from absorbing sunlight for millennia, says Max Bridger, project operations manager of Heat the Streets, and it's this heat that is harvested by the heatmain. Heat pumps run more efficiently when buildings are insulated to minimise heat loss (Credit: sturti/Getty Images) Heat pumps run more efficiently when buildings are insulated to minimise heat loss (Credit: sturti/Getty Images) The heat pumps then perform another series of exchange, compression and evaporation that brings the temperature to around 50C (122F). Finally, this heat is transferred to water, which is pumped through a house's specially upgraded pipes and radiators. Kensa Utilities, the company in charge of installing the network in Stithians, will remain the owner of the infrastructure. For residents, connecting to the heatmain works like it does with other utilities, such as broadband or water. Residents own their individual heat pumps and pay a connection fee to join whenever they're ready. "When a [gas] boiler breaks, there'll now be an alternative to simply replacing it. But this system also means people don't have to finance the large upfront infrastructure costs or connect all at once," says Bridger. The ground source heat pumps provide all the heating and hot water needed by the house, and cut the greenhouse gas emissions released by them by 70%. Residents keep full control of their heating and can switch energy suppliers whenever they want. Simmons ultimately plans to use her solar panels, currently set up to sell the electricity to the National Grid, to directly power the heat pump Simmons' home was fitted with a heat pump that shares a heatmain with several neighbours. It took around a week to do the interior and exterior work and "really wasn't too disruptive or noisy", she says. The water cylinder, tucked away inside an old linen cupboard, is almost exactly the same size as an average boiler. She ultimately plans to use her solar panels, currently set up to sell the electricity to the National Grid, to directly power the heat pump – which she says would make her home almost entirely self-sufficient. Workers operate a drill rig for a borehole in Enfield, London, where they are installing ground source heat pumps in high-rise flats (Credit: Kensa Utilities) Workers operate a drill rig for a borehole in Enfield, London, where they are installing ground source heat pumps in high-rise flats (Credit: Kensa Utilities) This concept of a heatmain buried beneath a communal street is by no means restricted to single-storey properties like Simmons'. Another Kensa project in Enfield, London, is installing ground source heat pumps in high-rise flats. Heatmains have been developed beneath each of eight tower blocks, totalling 400 flats, using their car parks to drill the required boreholes. A vertical shaft that is used to transport other utilities throughout the building, known as a service riser, allows the technology used in Stithians to work for multi-storey buildings, says Bridger. With smaller spaces, retrofitting each flat with a "shoebox" heat pump can supply enough heat while minimising the space taken up inside, he adds. The future of heat pumps in high-rise buildings is receiving growing attention across the world. In New York City, it is air-source heat pumps that have become the focus of efforts to decarbonise the city's 6,000 high-rise buildings. The beauty of heat pumps is that they can both heat and cool spaces, using the same process in reverse – Melissa Lott Currently, most of these have a single, large gas boiler that controls the whole building's heating. Each individual flat also uses an air conditioning unit attached to an outdoor window that works separately from the heating system. In 2021, the New York City Housing Association launched the Clean Heat for All Challenge, a competition to encourage industry innovation in line with an upcoming local law that will limit the greenhouse gas emissions of buildings from 2024. The design that emerged as the winner is an air-source heat pump which hangs "like horse saddlebags" from the base of apartment windows, not blocking any light or taking up space inside apartments, Lott says. "The beauty of heat pumps is that they can both heat and cool spaces, using the same process in reverse," Lott adds. "It's one modular unit performing two functions." The design would also give apartments control of their own heating and cooling. "It's more efficient because you have the ability to customise your apartment to your own comfort so there'll be no more windows flung open from overheated apartments in winter," says Lott. The new heat pumps are being rolled out this year for a trial at Woodside Houses, a complex of 20 brick buildings in Queens where residents went without heating and hot water last winter following Hurricane Ida. While it is not expected that the local grid infrastructure will need to be upgraded immediately, an increased electricity demand is an important consideration in the increased use of heat pumps generally. Jan Rosenow, director of European programmes at the Regulatory Assistance Project (RAP), says that the UK could see pressure on the grid double or even triple in the next 20 to 30 years. "There will need to be ways to store electricity other than as large batteries in people's homes," he says. There is a range of promising technologies out there, he adds, such as flow batteries and green hydrogen. (Read more about whether gravity batteries can solve our energy storage problems). Stockholm's district heating network supplies electricity to 800,000 homes using industrial-scale heat pumps and other sources of heat (Credit: Christine Olsson/Getty Images) Stockholm's district heating network supplies electricity to 800,000 homes using industrial-scale heat pumps and other sources of heat (Credit: Christine Olsson/Getty Images) In a sense, Heat the Streets taps into another major solution for heating homes in a low-carbon world: district heating. In essence, district heat networks are "just whacking empty vessels that connect properties together", says David Barns, a heat decarbonisation expert at the University of Leeds. "How you get heat energy into that heat network is a related but separate question." District heating boomed in Nordic countries during the 1970s' oil crisis, but the systems were mostly powered by burning fossil fuels in large combined heat and energy plants. Still, this design of a single centralised system can make it far easier to switch a significant number of homes to low-carbon heating – without thousands of boilers being "ripped out", says Barns. Carbon Count The emissions from travel it took to report this story were 3kg CO2. The digital emissions from this story are an estimated 1.2g to 3.6g CO2 per page view. Find out more about how we calculated this figure here. For example, Stockholm's district heating network has 3,000km (1,860 miles) of pipes and now supplies electricity to 800,000 homes using industrial-scale heat pumps which capture heat from domestic wastewater, data centres and seawater, alongside incinerated non-recyclable waste and forest biofuels. The Heat the Streets model in Stithians uses "fifth-generation district heating" – a localised network combined with heat pump technology. The advantage of this kind of street-by-street project is being able to focus on whatever energy resources there are nearby to make the best match, says Caroline Haglund Stignor, a researcher in energy technologies at Rise Research Institutes of Sweden. “You start small and then you build on little by little,” she says. This can allow for more innovative methods of sourcing heat, such as a network in Islington harnessing heat from the hot currents from London Underground tunnels, or flood-water in old mines. In the UK, however, there is a lack of awareness and regulation around district heating, which is delaying its expansion, says Barns. The UK government has committed to designating heat network zones no later than 2025 that will situate heat networks in the best places and mandating that people connect to them. This will help to make the business model for building heat networks more financially viable, Barns explains, because private investors will have more certainty that people are going to use them. This type of large-scale work can be coordinated with other groundworks, such as cables for electric vehicle charging points, to reduce disruption, says Rosenow. But these rollouts at the local level requires "radical change" in planning that is not yet reflected in policies or frameworks, he adds. It's far more common to see air-source heat pumps on individual houses than apartment blocks (Credit: Mark Morgan/Alamy) It's far more common to see air-source heat pumps on individual houses than apartment blocks (Credit: Mark Morgan/Alamy) Still, district heating is not necessarily the right answer everywhere. It is most suitable for densely populated areas due to the significant heat loss that comes from transporting water at high temperatures over long distances. District heating already exists in some US cities, such as Milwaukee and Baltimore, but the country doesn't have the same density of population as the UK and most of Western Europe, bar a few exceptions, says Lott. "For most of the US, we're talking about heating individual buildings and so district heat networks don't make sense. [Individual] heat pumps, both air or ground source, are a much better option for us." The road to decarbonised heating is not simple but heat pumps are one technology more or less ready and waiting, so long as the cost hurdles can be breached. But even as question marks hang over energy security, fuel prices and climate-related weather extremes, the yoga studio in the Simmons' family home feels like an inviting place to weather the uncertainty. This article was updated on 2/2/23 to clarify a quote about long term storage solutions from Jan Rosenow. 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